Method For Inducing Antitumor Immunity Using Sindbis Viral Vectors And Tumor Associated Antigens

ABSTRACT

The subject application is directed to a method for treating a mammal harboring a tumor comprising identifying a tumor associated antigen (TAA) expressed by the tumor and parenterally administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a Sindbis viral vector carrying a gene encoding the TAA to the mammal sufficient to elicit an immune response directed against the tumor, and thereby treating the tumor.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a non-provisional application of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 61/874,685 filed Sep. 6, 2013, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

The United States Government has certain rights to this invention byvirtue of funding received from the U.S. Public Health grants CA100687from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health andDepartments of Health and Human Services.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Oncolytic viruses (OV) are viruses that specifically target andreplicate in tumor cells [1]. Owing to their selectivity and oncolyticproperties, OVs have generated considerable interest as an alternativeor adjunct to conventional cancer therapies [2]. However, a majorlimitation of OV therapy is inadequate replication and propagation atthe tumor site [3, 4]. Moreover, for safety reasons, many OVs aredesigned to be replication deficient in order to prevent them fromspreading to healthy tissues, further limiting their oncolytic potential[5].

One possible solution to this problem is to supplement direct viraloncolysis with a bystander effect, in which tumor cells not directlyinfected by the OV will also be destroyed. This can be achieved, forexample, by inserting a therapeutic or cytotoxic gene into the OV genomefor delivery to the tumor site [6, 7]. Endowed with naturalimmunogenicity, some OVs are capable of effective stimulation of theimmune system, raising the possibility of using OVs to induce animmunological anti-cancer bystander effect [8]. This idea gained furtherimpetus with the identification [9, 10] and recent prioritization [11]of a variety of clinically relevant tumor associated antigens (TAA),which can be delivered by the OV (OV/TAA) to the tumor site [12]. Intheir natural state, TAAs are often poorly immunogenic [13]. However, byredirecting the anti-viral immune response towards the TAA, animmunogenic OV/TAA could potentially break this immunological tolerance.A major goal of OV research should therefore be the development of safeand effective OV/TAA agents. Sindbis virus (SV), an alphavirus with apositive single-stranded RNA genome [14], represents one of a selectnumber of viruses that have demonstrated exceptional potential both asan OV [15, 16] and as a viral vaccine [17]. It has been previously shownthat replication deficient SV vectors target and inhibit the growth ofxenograft, syngeneic and spontaneous tumors in mice [16, 18].

Recently, it has also been found that SV induces the activation ofnatural killer (NK) cells and macrophages in tumor-bearing mice [19]. Inaddition, SV vectors expressing immune-modulating genes such asinterleukin 12 (IL-12) have an enhanced antitumor [16] andimmunostimulatory [19] effect. Nevertheless, these approaches have notgenerally led to complete tumor remission [19]. Moreover, some tumorcells may not be efficiently targeted by SV [20], underscoring the needto develop new ways of enhancing SV anti-cancer therapy.

Previously, it was hypothesized that the unique characteristics of SVvectors, which make them effective oncolytic agents and gene deliverysystems (e.g. the ability to disseminate through the bloodstream [15]and deliver high levels of heterologous proteins [21]) could also beuseful for efficient TAA delivery. Moreover, the SV life cycle, which ischaracterized by the absence of a DNA phase, rendering the vectorssafer, also involves the production of high levels of double strandedRNA (dsRNA), a potent immunological ‘danger signal’ [22], and thesubsequent activation of the type I interferon pathway [23]. Thecombination of safety, immunogenicity, efficient dissemination, and highTAA expression make SV/TAA an attractive OV/TAA candidate. Therefore,what is needed in the art are methods for treating mammals sufferingfrom tumors using SV/TAA, thereby taking advantage of all of theabove-mentioned benefits.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein, the BALB/c CT26 colon carcinoma tumor model was usedto investigate the use of SV as an OV/TAA agent. It was found thatunlike other tumor models tested, CT26 cells are not targeted by SV invivo. Nevertheless, SV vectors carrying β galactosidase (SV/LacZ) had aremarkable therapeutic effect in mice bearing LacZ-expressing CT26tumors. Using the in vivo imaging system (IVIS) for sensitive in vivodetection of luciferase activity [24], the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN)were identified as a site of early transient heterologous proteinexpression after intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of SV vectors carryingthe firefly luciferase gene (SV/Fluc). TAA delivery into the MLN markedthe starting point of a potent immune response that culminated in thegeneration of effector and memory CD8⁺ T cells displaying robustcytotoxicity against LacZ positive and negative tumor cells. This latterphenomenon, known as epitope spreading, has recently been suggested tobe an important component of effective cancer immunotherapy in patients[25].

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating amammal harboring a tumor comprising the steps of identifying a tumorassociated antigen (TAA) expressed by the tumor, and parenterallyadministering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of aSindbis viral vector carrying a gene encoding the TAA to the mammalsufficient to elicit an immune response directed against the tumor, andthereby treating the tumor.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for inducinga CD8+ T-cell mediated immune response directed against a tumor in amammal comprising the steps of identifying at least one tumor associatedantigen (TAA) expressed by the tumor, and parenterally administering toa mammal in need of such treatment an amount of a Sindbis viral vectorcarrying a gene encoding the TAA effective to elicit a CD8+ T-cellmediated immune response directed against the tumor.

These and other aspects of the present invention will be apparent tothose of ordinary skill in the art in light of the present description,claims and drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1a-1c . SV/LacZ inhibits the growth of LacZ-expressing CT26.CL25tumors. (a) 0.5×10⁶ LacZ-expressing CT26.CL25 (left panel) orLacZ-negative CT26.WT (right panel) cells were injected s.c. into theright flank of BALB/c mice. Starting on day 9 after tumor inoculation,mice were treated i.p. with SV/LacZ, control SV/Fluc vectors, or media(Mock). Tumor volume (mm³) was measured and plotted (N=3-4). Data arerepresentative of at least two independent experiments. (b) Kaplan-Meiersurvival plots of mice bearing peritoneal CT26.CL25 tumors. 2.5×10⁴CT26.CL25 cells were injected i.p., and treatment started on day 4(N=5). Data for the SV/LacZ and mock groups is representative of 2independent experiments. (c) Representative IVIS images of SV/LacZ andcontrol-treated mice bearing lung CT26.CL25.Fluc tumors are shown (leftpanel). Relative tumor growth (top right panel) was determined bynormalizing the luminescence to the first image (day 2) for eachindividual mouse, and survival rates were plotted (bottom right panel)(N=5-8). Data is representative of 2 independent experiments. Data in(a) and (c) are expressed as mean±SEM. *p<0.05 **p<0.01. SV, Sindbisviral vector.

FIGS. 2a-2c . TAA expression and T cell activation occur in themediastinal lymph nodes. (a) s.c. CT26.CL25 tumor-bearing mice (leftpanel) or tumor-free mice (right panel) were treated i.p. with SV/Fluc.3 hours after the 5^(th) (left panel) or 1^(st) (right panel) treatment,bioluminescent images were taken to monitor Fluc expression from thevector. To determine the source of the upper body signal, the MLN wasextracted and imaged separately (right panel). Red circles in the leftpanel indicate the location of the s.c. tumor in each mouse. (b) Micebearing lung CT26.CL25.Fluc tumors were treated with SV/LacZ. 24 hourslater, mediastinal and inguinal lymph nodes were extracted and stainedto determine the percentage of T cells (CD3 positive, MEW class IInegative) in the lymph nodes. Representative plots (left panel), andtheir quantification (right panel; n=3) are shown. (c) The expression ofCD69 on CD8⁺ T cells extracted from mediastinal and inguinal lymph nodesof lung tumor-bearing mice 24 hours after i.p. SV/LacZ injection wasanalyzed. Representative flow cytometry plots (left panel), and bargraphs showing the percentage of CD69-high cells (right panel; n=3) areshown. Data in (b) and (c) are representative of two independentexperiments (the second experiment was done in mice bearing i.p.tumors), and are expressed as mean±SEM. *p<0.05 **p<0.01. Fluc, fireflyluciferase; MLN, mediastinal lymph node; ILN, inguinal lymph node; S/L,SV/LacZ (SV, Sindbis viral vector); TAA, tumor-associated antigen.

FIGS. 3a and 3b . SV/LacZ induces potent CD8⁺ T cell response. (a) LungCT26.CL25.Fluc tumor bearing mice were treated with SV/LacZ or media(Mock). 7 days later, peritoneal cells were analyzed. Representativeflow cytometry plots (left panel), and the calculated number of CD8⁺ Tcells (right panel) are shown (mean±SEM, N=3). (b) CD8⁺ T cells from theperitoneum and the lungs were further analyzed to determine theiractivation state, using NKG2D and L-selectin as activation markers.Representative flow cytometry plots (left panel) and the calculatedpercentage of activated (NKG2D high, L-selectin low) cells (right panel)are shown (mean±SEM, N=3). *p<0.05 **p<0.01. SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIGS. 4a-4d . SV/LacZ induces LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cell response. (a,b)Splenocytes from CT26.CL25 s.c. tumor-bearing mice were collected andanalyzed 2 weeks after SV/LacZ or Mock treatment started. Representativetetramer plots (a), and the percentage of tetramer-positive cells (b)are shown (N=5). (c) Cells from the peritoneal cavity of i.p. and lungtumor-bearing mice 7 days after therapy started were collected, stainedand analyzed (N=4-5). (d) Lungs from lung tumor-bearing mice 7 daysafter treatment started were analyzed, and the percentage of activated(NKG2D high, L-selectin low) cells in the subsets of LacZ tetramerpositive and negative CD8⁺ T cells in the lungs were analyzed andplotted as in FIG. 3b (N=3). Data in (b)-(d) are expressed as mean±SEM.*p<0.05 **p<0.01. SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIGS. 5a and 5b . Lymphocytes acquire LacZ-specific cytotoxicity duringSV/LacZ therapy. Lung lymphocytes were extracted from CT26.CL25.Fluclung tumor-bearing mice 7 days after Mock (−), SV/GFP (G) or SV/LacZ (L)treatment started. Extracted lung lymphocytes were co-cultured withCT26.CL25.Fluc cells (CT26.CL25) or CT26.WT.Fluc cells (CT26.WT) for 2days to determine (a) the cytotoxicity of lung lymphocytes against eachtumor cell population, and (b) IFN-γ secretion from the lung lymphocytesin response to co-culture with each tumor cell population, as describedin Materials and Methods (data in (a) and (b) are expressed as mean±SD,N=3). **p<0.01 (significantly different from Mock). N.D, not detected.SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIGS. 6a-6c . CD8⁺ T cells are required for the enhanced therapeuticeffect of SV/LacZ. The therapeutic effect of SV/LacZ was comparedbetween intact and CD8⁺ T cell-depleted (CD8⁺ T cell (−)) mice in the(a) s.c., (b) i.p., and (c) lung tumor models. (a) The size of CT26.CL25s.c. tumors at indicated time points was measured and plotted for eachgroup (N=5). (b) Survival rates in CT26.CL25 i.p. tumor-bearing micewere monitored and plotted as Kaplan-Meier survival plots. N=8-9 (c)Tumor growth (left panel) and survival rates (right panel) inCT26.CL25.Fluc lung tumor-bearing mice were analyzed. Relative tumorgrowth was quantified as in FIG. 1c , and survival rates are shown asKaplan-Meier survival plots (N=5). Data in (a) and (c) are expressed asmean±SEM. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. N. S, not significant; SV, Sindbis viralvector.

FIGS. 7a-7e . Immunity against endogenous CT26 TAAs develops duringSV/LacZ therapy. (a,b) Splenocytes were extracted from CT26.CL25.Fluclung tumor-bearing mice at 7 days after Mock (−), SV/GFP (G) or SV/LacZ(L) treatment started. Extracted splenocytes were co-cultured withCT26.CL25.Fluc (CT26.CL25) or CT26.WT.Fluc (CT26.WT) cells for 2 days todetermine (a) the cytotoxicity of the splenocytes towards each tumorcell population, and (b) IFN-γ secretion from the splenocytes inresponse to co-culture with each tumor cell population, as described inMaterials and Methods (mean±SD, N=3). (c) CT26. WT.Fluc tumor wasinoculated i.v. into naïve and CT26.CL25 SV/LacZ-treated tumor-curedmice at more than 60 days after the last SV/LacZ treatment, and tumorgrowth in the lung was analyzed at the indicated time points bybioluminescent imaging. The left panel shows representative IVIS imagesof 2 independent experiments. The right panel shows the quantificationof tumor bioluminescence at the indicated time points (mean±SEM, N=8.(d) CT26.WT.Fluc tumors were inoculated i.v. into naïve (N) andSV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice (S) at more than 30 days after the lastSV/LacZ treatment. 8 days after tumor inoculation, splenocytes wereextracted from each mouse and incubated with LacZ, gp70, or controlpeptides for 3 days. After the incubation, LacZ- or gp70-specificinduction of IFN-γ secretion was analyzed as described in Materials andMethods (mean±SEM, N=3). (e) The number of gp70-specific CD8⁺ T cells insplenocytes extracted in (d) was quantified by flow cytometry using gp70tetramers (mean±SD, N=3). *p<0.05, **p<0.01 (significantly differentfrom Mock or Naïve). N.D, not detected; SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIG. 8. Four-step model for the activation of CD8⁺ T cells during SV/TAAtherapy. Step 1: i.p. injection of SV/LacZ results in transientimmunogenic expression of LacZ in the mediastinal lymph nodes (dark bluearrow), followed by the induction of T cell activation at this siteand/or in alternative locations (light blue arrow). NK cells are alsoactivated against the tumor cells (brown arrow). Step 2 (red arrow):LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cell cytotoxicity results in the destruction oftumor cells and the subsequent release of tumor associated antigens suchas LacZ and gp70. Step 3 (green arrows): Antigen-presenting cellscapture and present these antigens to CD8⁺ T cells in the tumor-draininglymph nodes, resulting in epitope spreading, including the induction ofgp70-specific CD8⁺ T cells that can potentially target LacZ(−) tumorcell escape variants. Step 4 (purple arrows): memory CD8⁺ T cellsagainst a variety of tumor-associated antigens are generated. APC,antigen-presenting cell; LN, lymph node; MLN, mediastinal lymph node;NK, Natural killer cell; SV, Sindbis viral vector; TAA, tumor-associatedantigen; Tc, cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cell; Tm, memory CD8⁺ T cell.

FIGS. 9a and 9b . The enhanced therapeutic effect of SV/LacZ in micebearing lung tumors is dependent on LacZ expression on the tumors. (a)Tumor growth was analyzed in CT26.CL25.Fluc or CT26.WT.Fluc lungtumor-bearing mice at indicated time points. The left panel showsrepresentative IVIS images of two independent experiments. The rightpanel shows the relative tumor growth at indicated time points. Data areexpressed as mean±SEM. (N=4-7). (b) Survival rates of CT26.CL25.Fluc orCT26.WT.Fluc lung tumor-bearing mice are shown as Kaplan-Meier survivalplots (N=5-7). *p<0.05, **p<0.01. SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIGS. 10a and 10b . SV does not target CT26 tumors in the lung. (a)Tumor-free or CT26.WT lung tumor-bearing mice were treated i.p. withSV/Fluc every 2 days. Whole body bioluminescent images were taken atindicated time points after the first SV/Fluc treatment. (b) On day 6,whole body images were taken, and then the indicated organs wereextracted and imaged separately. Fluc, firefly luciferase; SV, Sindbisviral vector.

FIGS. 11a and 11b . SV/Fluc and SV/GFP induce CD8+ T cell response. (a)Peritoneal tumor bearing mice were treated with SV/Fluc (left panel),SV/GFP (right panel), or media (Mock). At indicated time points,peritoneal cells were analyzed using flow cytometry, and the calculatednumber of CD8+ T cells in the peritoneum is shown (mean±SEM, N=2-3 foreach time point). (b) Representative flow cytometry plots showL-selectin expression on peritoneal CD8+ T cells from SV/GFP ormock-treated mice 7 days after treatment started (N=2). Fluc, fireflyluciferase; GFP, green fluorescent protein; SV, Sindbis viral vector.

FIGS. 12a-12c . SV/TAA induces the activation of effector and memoryLacZ-specific CD8+ T cells. (a) Left panel: LacZ-naïve, tumor-free micewere injected with SV/LacZ or media (Mock). Four days later, peritonealcells were extracted and analyzed for the presence of LacZ-specific CD8+T cells. Right panel: The activation level of peritoneal CD8+ T cellsfrom Mock- and SV/LacZ-treated mice were compared to each other, as wellas to the LacZ-specific CD8+ T cells obtained from the SV/LacZ treatedmouse (SV/LacZ tet+). Activated cells were defined as NKG2D high,L-selectin low cells. (b) LacZ tetramer analysis from peritonealCT26.CL25 tumor bearing mice treated with SV/LacZ, SV/Fluc, or media(Mock) are shown. (c) Splenocytes from naïve or SV/LacZ-treatedlong-term surviving mice (SV/LacZ survivor) that bore i.p. CT26.CL25tumors were stained with anti-CD127 (memory cell marker) and LacZspecific tetramers to determine the presence of long-lastingLacZ-specific memory (CD127+, Tetramer+) cells. Data is representativeof two specimens, taken more than 3 months after the treatment wasstopped. All plots show gated CD8+ T cells. Fluc, firefly luciferase;LacZ, 3-galactosidase; SV, Sindbis viral vector; tet, tetramer.

FIGS. 13a and 13b . NK cells are activated at an early stage of SVtherapy. (a) Percentages of lung CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells,LacZ-specific CD8+ T cells, and NK (CD3-CD122+) cells within the totallung immune cell (CD45+) population from CT26.CL25.Fluc lungtumor-bearing mice were analyzed at indicated time points after Mock orSV/LacZ treatment started. (b) Expression of NKG2D on NK cells in thelung from CT26.CL25.Fluc lung tumor-bearing mice was analyzed atindicated time points after mock or SV/LacZ treatment started. Data areexpressed as mean±SEM (N=3). *p<0.05, **p<0.01. LacZ, β-galactosidase;NK, natural killer cell; SV, Sindbis viral vector; tet, tetramer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The term “about” or “approximately” usually means within an acceptableerror range for the type of value and method of measurement. Forexample, it can mean within 20%, more preferably within 10%, and mostpreferably still within 5% of a given value or range. Alternatively,especially in biological systems, the term “about” means within about alog (i.e., an order of magnitude) preferably within a factor of two of agiven value.

The present invention is based on the following discoveries: (i) SVrepresents a potentially powerful therapeutic platform for theimmunogenic delivery of TAAs, (ii) the therapeutic benefit obtained fromSV/TAA does not necessarily require the direct targeting of tumor cells,(iii) SV/TAA therapy involves transient early delivery of the TAA tolymph nodes draining the injection site, in particular the MLN in thecase of i.p. SV injection, (iv) SV/TAA therapy induces a potentTAA-specific CD8+ T cell response, that is subsequently redirectedagainst tumor cells expressing the cognate TAA, (v) SV/TAA therapy leadsto epitope spreading, providing a possible solution to the problem oftumor escape by TAA loss or modification, and (vi) SV/TAA therapyultimately leads to long-term survival of tumor-bearing mice, and to thegeneration of long-lasting memory CD8+ T cells against multiple TAAs.

Pursuant to the present invention, Sindbis viral vectors carrying genesencoding tumor associated antigens (TAAs) are used to elicit an immuneresponse directed against tumors in mammals. Oncolytic viruses (OVs)have recently emerged as a promising strategy for the immunogenicdelivery of TAAs to cancer patients. However, prior to the presentinvention, safe and effective OV/TAA therapies have not yet beenestablished. It has been previously demonstrated that vectors based onSindbis virus (SV) can target tumor cells, inhibit tumor growth andactivate the innate immune system in mice. It has now been unexpectedlydiscovered that parenterally administered SV vectors carrying a geneencoding a tumor associated antigen (TAA) generate a dramaticallyenhanced therapeutic effect in mice bearing subcutaneous,intraperitoneal, and lung cancers. Surprisingly, SV/TAA efficacy was notdependent on tumor cell targeting, but was characterized by thetransient expression of TAAs in lymph nodes draining the injection site.Early T cell activation at this site was followed by a robust influx ofNKG2D expressing antigen-specific cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells into the tumorsite, subsequently leading to the generation of long-lasting memory Tcells. Such cells conferred protection against re-challenge withTAA-positive as well as—negative tumor cells. As described herein, bycombining in vivo imaging, flow cytometry, cytotoxicity/cytokine assays,and tetramer analysis, the relationship between these events has beendiscerned. As a result, a model for CD8⁺ T cell activation during SV/TAAtherapy and a method to treat mammals suffering from tumors by elicitingan immune response directed against a tumor is provided.

SV/TAA can be combined with chemotherapy, as it has been previouslyshown that SV and chemotherapy can synergize (e.g. see U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/133,680). This includes, but is not limited to,chemotherapy that stimulates the immune system, or that inhibitssuppressor elements in the immune system, or that affects tumor cellsand makes them more susceptible to T cell (or other immune cell)cytotoxicity. For example, there are certain chemotherapies that couldfacilitate SV/TAA therapy because they suppress immunosuppressive cells,thereby enhancing SV/TAA immunostimulation. There have also been reportsin the literature suggesting that chemotherapy enhances tumor cellsusceptibility to T cell mediated cytotoxicity, for example,Ramakrishnan et al. Journal of Clinical Investigation,120(11):4141-4154, 2010.

In the method of the present invention, a patient afflicted with a tumoris examined to identify a TAA associated with the tumor. Examples ofsolid tumors that can be treated according to the invention includesarcomas and carcinomas such as, but not limited to: fibrosarcoma,myxosarcoma, liposarcoma, chondrosarcoma, osteogenic sarcoma, chordoma,angiosarcoma, endotheliosarcoma, lymphangiosarcoma, synovioma,mesothelioma, Ewing's tumor. leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyo sarcoma. Coloncarcinoma, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostatecancer, squamolls cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, epidermoidcarcinoma, adenocarcinoma, sweat gland carcinoma, sebaceous glandcarcinoma, papillary carcinoma, papillary adenocarcinomas,cystadenocarcinoma, medullary carcinoma, bronchogenic carcinoma, renalcell carcinoma. hepatoma. bile duct carcinoma, choriocarcinoma,seminoma, embryonal carcinoma. Wilms'.tumor. cervical cancer, testiculartumor, lung carcinoma. small cell lung carcinoma. Bladder carcinoma,epithelial carcinoma, glioma. astrocytoma, medulloblastoma,craniopharyngioma, ependymoma, pinealoma. hemangioblastoma. acousticneuroma, oligodendroglioma, meningioma, melanoma, neuroblastoma,neuroglioma. and retinoblastoma.

Hematologic malignancies can also be treated according to the inventionprovided that the specific TAA can be identified.

Pursuant to the present invention, the tumor and the SV must expresseither the same TAA or a similar but not identical TAA that isimmunologically cross-reactive with the TAA expressed by the SV/TAA.TAAs are well known in the art. For example, Cheevers et al. (ClinCancer Res 15: 5323-5337, 2009) disclosed 75 representative TAAs forcomparison and ranking, assembling information on the predefinedcriteria for the selected antigens, and ranking the antigens based onthe predefined, pre-weighted criteria. Any TAA expressed by the tumorcan be utilized. However, it is expected that there is wide variabilitybetween the efficacy of different TAAs, with some TAAs potentiallyinducing much stronger responses (immunodominant TAAs); exactly whichones are preferred can be determined using routine investigation wellknown to those of ordinary skill in the art.

The TAA expressed by a patient's tumor can be identified from a biopsyor from blood tests when a biopsy is not possible. Serological analysisof expression cDNA libraries (SEREX) has previously been used toidentify human TAAs. Alternative methods can also be used.

After the relevant TAA has been identified, a Sindbis viral vectorcarrying a gene encoding the TAA is constructed using techniques wellknown in the art such as those described in the Materials and Methodsbelow. The nucleotide sequences encoding the TAAs are also well known inthe art and can be easily obtained from the literature. For example, thesequence of NY-ESO-1, a testicular antigen aberrantly expressed in humancancers was published in 1997(http://www.pnas.org/content/94/5/1914.full, Yao-Tseng Chen*†‡, MatthewJ. Scanlan†, Ugur Sahin§, Özlem Türeci§, Ali O. Gure†, Solam Tsang†,Barbara Williamson†, Elisabeth Stockert†, Michael Pfreundschuh§, andLloyd J. Old† PNAS 1997.), whereas the Carcinoembryonic antigen sequencewas published in 1987 (http://mcb.asm.org/content/7/9/3221.shortIsolation and characterization of full-length functional cDNA clones forhuman carcinoembryonic antigen. N Beauchemin, S Benchimol, D Cournoyer,A Fuks and C P Stanners, Molecular and Cellular Biology 1987.)

Any Sindbis viral vector can be used in the present invention, includingreplication competent (described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No.8,282,916) and replication defective (described, for example, in U.S.Pat. Nos. 7,303,898, 7,306,792, and 8,093,021). Replication defectivevectors are preferred for use in the present invention in order toprevent infection of healthy tissues.

Pursuant to the present invention, a single i.p. injection of atherapeutically effective amount of SV/TAA sufficient to infect thecells of the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN) leads to their rapidimmunogenic delivery to the MLN. Such therapeutically effective amountsbroadly range between about between about 10 million and about 100billion vector particles. Although in mice a single i.p. injection ofSV/TAA is sufficient to elicit a detectable CD8+ mediated immuneresponse directed against the tumor, other regimens may be necessary forachieving a maximal response. For example, between 1 and about 8 i.p.injections over a time period of between 1 week and many weeks, with thepossibility of injecting one or more booster injections 1 or more yearslater, may be preferably administered for a maximum effect.

The MLN has previously been shown to drain the peritoneum [27, 28], andrepresents an environment in which antigens delivered by SV vectors(e.g., TAAs) can potentially be processed and presented to T cells byantigen presenting cells (APC) in the context of SV viral danger signalssuch as double stranded (ds) RNA [22]. One of the main functions oflymph nodes is to facilitate the induction of an adaptive immuneresponse. Viral danger signals are components of the virus (or ofinfected cells) that stimulate the immune system. Double stranded RNA issuch a danger signal because it is not normally found in cells, and isassociated with viral infections. The MLN provides the location for theinduction of a CD8+ T cell mediated immune response directed against theTAA. Consistent with this finding, the number of T cells in the MLNsignificantly increased 24 hours after SV/TAA treatment using LacZ as amodel antigen.

It is also possible to use two (or more) different vectors, includingthe injection of different vectors carrying different cytokines atdifferent time points to facilitate the induction and progression of anenhanced immune response against the TAA or TAAs.

In addition to CD8+ T cells, SV/TAA therapy can also activate additionalimmune (or non-immune) cells, including (but not limited to) CD4+ Tcells, NK cells, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils,and other cells, as well as the humoral immune response. Epitopespreading can occur not only in CD8+ T cells, but also in CD4+ T cells.As can be seen in Example 2, tumor cell targeting is not required foreffective SV/TAA therapy, suggesting that immune cell activation duringSV/TAA therapy may occur far away from the tumor site (in this case thelungs), e.g. in lymph nodes that drain the SV injection site.

As shown in Example 3, using flow cytometry, it was confirmed that alarge number of CD8+ T cells influx into the peritoneum 7 days after thefirst SV/TAA injection. These peritoneal CD8+ T cells were activated, asevidenced by the upregulation of NKG2D [30] and downregulation of lymphnode homing receptor L-selectin [31]). In addition to the robust influxof activated CD8+ T cells into the peritoneum, a small number of NKG2Dhigh, L-selectin low CD8+ T cells could also be seen in the lungs ofmice bearing lung CT26.CL25 tumors that were treated with SV/TAA. It wasfound that a subset of the LacZ-specific CD8+ T cells generated duringSV/LacZ therapy eventually develop into memory T cells. Splenocytes fromSV/LacZ-treated long-term surviving mice that bore i.p. CT26.CL25 tumorswere analyzed. Using LacZ tetramers in combination with the memorymarker CD127, a population (roughly 1% of the CD8+ T cell splenocytepopulation) of LacZ-specific, CD127+ memory CD8+ T cells in these micewas identified more than 3 months after the last SV/LacZ injection.Therefore, treatment pursuant to the present invention led to the longterm maintenance of antitumor activity.

Use of the methods of the present invention causes epitope spreading.One of the limitations of prior art cancer vaccine strategies has beenthe inherent heterogeneity and genomic instability of tumor cellpopulations, coupled with the selective pressure induced by thetreatment, leading to tumor evasion by loss or modification of the TAAused in the vaccine [38, 39]. In this context, an important aspect ofthe present invention is the induction of epitope spreading, i.e. theexpansion of the anti-tumor T cell response to incorporate novel TAAsthat are endogenous to the tumor, but not delivered by the vector [32]during SV/TAA therapy. Clinical trials are increasingly incorporatingthe analysis of epitope spreading [40], and in some cases a positivecorrelation between the induction of epitope spreading and therapeuticefficacy has been shown [25]. As shown in Example 7, SV/TAA therapyagainst CT26.CL25 tumors caused epitope spreading, which led to thedevelopment of immunity against other unrelated antigen(s) expressed onthe CT26 tumors.

In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, dual expressionSV vectors that carry and deliver genes encoding TAAs in conjunctionwith genes encoding appropriate immune stimulating cytokines to createoptimal conditions in the lymph node for T cell stimulation areemployed. Such immune stimulating cytokines include, without limitation,IL-12 (disclosed in http://www.jimmunol.org/content/146/9/3074.shortCloning of cDNA for natural killer cell stimulatory factor, aheterodimeric cytokine with multiple biologic effects on T and naturalkiller cells. S F Wolf, P A Temple, M Kobayashi, D Young, M Dicig, LLowe, R Dzialo, L Fitz, C Ferenz and R M Hewick the Journal ofImmunology), and CCL17 (http://www.jbc.org/content/271/35/21514.shortMolecular Cloning of a Novel T Cell-directed CC Chemokine Expressed inThymus by Signal Sequence Trap Using Epstein-Barr Virus Vector*-ToshioImai‡, Tetsuya Yoshida, Masataka Baba, Miyuki Nishimura, Mayumi Kakizakiand Osamu Yoshie. The Journal of biological Chemistry).

Additional immune stimulating cytokines include, but are not limited to:IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11,IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, IL-16, IL-17. Additional cytokines includeIL-18-IL-36. In addition to CCL17, other chemokines can also be used,including, but not limited to, CCL1-CCL27 and other CC chemokines,CXCL1-CXCL13 and other CXC chemokines, C chemokines, and CX₃C chemkines.Cytokine or chemokine receptors and soluble receptors can also be used.Additional immune modulators that can be used include TGF-β and TNFα. Inaddition, different combinations of the above-mentioned (or alternative)cytokines can be used.

Moreover, because MLN TAA expression is both transient and re-inducible(unpublished results), different cytokines can be delivered at differentstages of SV/TAA therapy to further tailor the anti-tumor immuneresponse. For example, SV/IL12 can be delivered in the early stages ofSV/TAA therapy in order to stimulate a Th1 cytotoxic T cell response,and SV/CCL17 can be delivered later on, in order to enhance thecross-priming of additional TAAs, thereby increasing epitope spreading.

It has been previously demonstrated that SV vectors carrying the IL-12gene have an enhanced therapeutic effect in tumor-bearing mice [16], andpromote the IFN-γ-dependent activation of M1 type macrophages [19].However, the effects of IL-12 delivery to the MLN have not specificallybeen investigated before the present invention.

In another alternative embodiment, SV vectors are used to target and/orto deliver payloads to mediastinal masses such as those derived fromcertain neurogenic tumors [37]. Since tumors often metastasize to thelymph nodes (including the mediastinal lymph nodes), and SV cannaturally target certain lymph nodes (including the mediastinal lymphnodes), SV can be used to deliver antigens, cytokines, or other payloadsdirectly to the site of tumor growth.

Multiple TAAs can also be used either by using one Sindbis vectorexpressing multiple TAAs, or by using multiple Sindbis vectorsexpressing different TAAs. In addition, the route of administration isparenteral, including, but not limited to, intravenous, intraperitoneal,subcutaneous, intramuscular, intranasal, intraorbital, intranodular, andintratumoral injections.

The model for the method is presented below:

Step 1: i.p. injection of SV/TAA results in transient immunogenicexpression of TAA in the mediastinal lymph nodes, followed by theinduction of T cell activation at this site and/or in alternativelocations; NK cells are also activated against the tumor cells. Step 2TAA-specific CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity results in the destruction oftumor cells and the subsequent release of tumor associated antigens.Step 3: Antigen-presenting cells capture and present these antigens toCD8+ T cells in the tumor-draining lymph nodes, resulting in epitopespreading, including the induction of TAA-specific CD8+ T cells that canpotentially target TAA(−) tumor cell escape variants. Step 4: memoryCD8+ T cells against a variety of tumor-associated antigens aregenerated.

The present invention is described further below in working exampleswhich are intended to further describe the present invention withoutlimiting the scope thereof.

Materials and Methods

Cell Lines. Baby hamster kidney (BHK), CT26.WT, and LacZ-expressingCT26.CL25 cells were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection.Firefly luciferase (Fluc)-expressing CT26 cells (CT26.WT.Fluc andCT26.CL25.Fluc) for noninvasive bioluminescent imaging were generated bystable transfection of a Fluc-expressing plasmid into CT26.WT andCT26.CL25 cells. The Fluc-expressing plasmid was constructed byintroducing a SV40 promoter sequence into the multi-cloning site ofpGL4.20 vector (Promega, Wis.).

Cell Culture. BHK cells were maintained in minimum essential a-modifiedmedia (a-MEM) (Mediatech, VA) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (AtlantaBiologicals, Norcross, Ga.). CT26.WT, CT26.CL25, CT26.WT.Fluc, andCT26.CL25.Fluc cells were maintained in Dulbecco modified essentialmedia (DMEM) containing 4.5 g/L glucose (Mediatech) supplemented with10% FBS. All basal media were supplemented with 100 mg/mL ofpenicillin-streptomycin (Mediatech) and 0.5 mg/mL of amphotericin B(Mediatech). For culturing CT26.CL25 and CT26.CL25.Fluc cells, 0.4 mg/mlof G418 sulfate (Mediatech) was added to the basal media. For culturingCT26.WT.Fluc and CT26.CL25.Fluc cells, 5 mg/ml of puromycin(Sigma-Aldrich, MO) was added to the basal media.

SV/TAA Production. SV/LacZ was used as an immunogenic SV/TAA agent, andSV/Fluc and SV/GFP were used as control vectors. SV/Fluc was also usedfor imaging experiments (see below). Vectors were produced as previouslydescribed [16]. Briefly, plasmids carrying the replicon (SinRep5-LacZ,SinRep5-GFP or SinRep5-Fluc) or DHBB helper RNAs (SinRep5-tBB) werelinearized with Xhol (for SinRep5-LacZ, SinRep5-GFP and SinRep5-tBB) orPad (for SinRep5-Fluc). In vitro transcription was performed using themMessage mMachine RNA transcription kit (Ambion, Tex.). Helper andreplicon RNAs were then electroporated into BHK cells and incubated at37° C. in □-MEM supplemented with 10% FBS. After 12 hours, the media wasreplaced with OPTI-MEM I (Invitrogen, CA) supplemented with CaCl₂) (100□g/mL) and cells were incubated at 37° C. After 24 hours, thesupernatant was collected, centrifuged to remove cellular debris, andfrozen at −80° C. Titers of the vectors were determined as previouslydescribed [15].

Mice and Tumor Inoculation. 4-8-week-old female BALB/c mice werepurchased from Taconic (Germantown, N.Y.). For the s.c. tumor model,0.5×10⁶ or 1×10⁶ CT26.WT or CT26.CL25 cells in 0.2 mL PBS were injecteds.c. into the right flank of each mouse. For the i.p. tumor model,2.5×10⁴ or 5×10⁴ CT26.CL25 cells in 0.2 mL PBS were injected i.p. intoeach mouse. For the lung tumor model, 0.3×10⁶ CT26.WT.Fluc orCT26.CL25.Fluc cells in 0.2 ml PBS were injected i.v. into each mouse.

Therapeutic Efficacy. In the s.c. tumor model, treatment started aftertumor volume was more than 40 mm³ (volume=width×width×length/2). In thei.p. tumor model, treatment started on day 4 after tumor cellinoculation. In the lung tumor model, treatment started on day 3 aftertumor cell inoculation. SV/LacZ, SV/GFP or SV/Fluc (˜10⁷ plaque formingunits in 0.5 mL of OPTI-MEM I) and mock treatments (0.5 mL of OPTI-MEM Isupplemented with 100 mg/L CaCl₂)) were administered i.p. 4 times a weekfor 2 weeks, for a total of 8 treatments. Therapeutic efficacy wasmonitored in three ways: tumor volume (for s.c. tumors, measured withmechanical calipers), tumor luminescence (for lung tumors), and survival(for i.p. and lung tumors). Noninvasive bioluminescent imaging was doneusing the IVIS Spectrum imaging system (Caliper Life Sciences, Inc.,MA), and tumor growth was quantified using the Living Image 3.0 software(Caliper Life Sciences) as previously described [16]. Survival wasmonitored and recorded daily.

Bioluminescent Imaging of SV/Fluc. Tumor-bearing and tumor-free micewere injected with SV/Fluc (˜10⁷ plaque forming units in 0.5 mL ofOPTI-MEM I 0.5 ml) intraperitoneally. After the treatment,bioluminescence signal was detected by IVIS at the indicated time pointsas previously described [16].

Ex Vivo Cytotoxicity Assay. Lung lymphocytes or splenocytes fromtumor-bearing mice were collected 7 days after SV treatment started.Lung lymphocytes (1×10⁵/ml) or splenocytes (2×10⁶/ml) were co-culturedwith CT26.WT.Fluc cells (2×10⁴/ml) or CT26.CL25.Fluc cells (2×10⁴/ml) ina 24-well plate for 2 days in 1 ml RPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% FBS.Culture media were then collected for interferon (IFN)-γ secretionassays, and the remaining cells in each well were washed twice with PBS.Cells were then lysed with 100 μl of M-PER Mammalian Protein ExtractionReagent (Pierce, Ill.) per well. Cytotoxicity was assessed based on theviability of the CT26 cells, which was determined by measuring theluciferase activity in each well. Luciferase activity was analyzed byadding 100 μl of Steady-Glo reagent (Promega corp., WI) to each celllysate, and measuring the luminescence using a GLOMAX portableluminometer (Promega corp.).

IFN-γ Secretion Assay. Lung lymphocytes (1×10⁵/ml) or splenocytes(2×10⁶/ml) were stimulated by CT26 tumor cells (2×10⁴/ml) or immunogenicpeptides (5 μg/ml) in a 24-well plate in 1 ml RPMI 1640 (Mediatech)supplemented with 10% FBS. The peptides used were the LacZ peptideTPHPARIGL [43], the gp70 peptide SPSYVYHQF [44], or the MA peptideLPYLGWLVF as a negative control [45]. After stimulation, IFN-γ levels inthe media were measured using a mouse IFN-γ Quantikine ELISA kit (R&Dsystems, Minneapolis, Minn.). TPHPARIGL and SPSYVYHQF-mediated increasein IFN-γ secretion was calculated by subtracting the IFN-γ levels in thecontrol (LPYLGWLVF stimulated) samples from the IFN-γ levels in theTPHPARIGL and SPSYVYHQF stimulated samples.

Flow Cytometry. Anti-mouse antibodies anti-CD8a eFluor® 450 and eFluor®650NC, anti-CD4 PE-Cyanine7, anti-CD69 PE, anti-CD314 (NKG2D)PE-Cyanine7, anti-CD62L (L-selectin) FITC and Alexa Fluor® 700 andanti-CD45 eFluor® 450 were purchased from eBioscience (San Diego,Calif.). PE-labeled LacZ tetramers were obtained from the NYU Vaccineand Cell Therapy Core (New York, N.Y.), and APC-labeled gp70 tetramerswere obtained from the NIH Tetramer Core Facility (Atlanta, Ga.). Forflow cytometry analysis of lung lymphocytes and splenocytes, mice wereeuthanized, and their lungs and spleens were extracted. The extractedlungs were chopped into small pieces and incubated with a digestion mix(collagenase I (50 μg/ml), collagenase IV (50 μg/ml), hyaluronidase V(25 μg/ml) and DNAse I (20 units/ml)) for 30 minutes at 37° C. Extractedspleens and digested lungs were then mashed through 70-100 μm cellstrainers, followed by a treatment with 1×RBC lysis buffer (eBioscience)to eliminate red blood cells. Peritoneal cells were collected fromperitoneal exudates as previously described [19]. Cells were thenstained with various Abs, washed twice with HBSS (Mediatech) andanalyzed using an LSR II machine (BD biosciences, CA). Data was analyzedusing FlowJo (Tree Star, San Carlos, Calif.).

CD8⁺ T Cell Depletion. CD8⁺ T cells were depleted using anti-CD8antibody (clone 2.43) (Bio X cell, Lebanon, N.H.). 0.4 mg antibody in0.2 mL PBS was injected into each mouse, starting 1 day before the firstSV treatment, and then every 2-3 days for 2 weeks. Control mice wereinjected with PBS.

Statistics. For flow cytometry, IVIS imaging, ELISA, tumor growth, andsurvival experiments, student t tests (2-tailed), analysis of variance(ANOVA) followed by Dunnett's test, or Kaplan-Meier log-rank test weredone using Prism® 4 for Macintosh (GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla,Calif.).

Example 1: SV/LacZ Inhibits the Growth of LacZ-Expressing Tumors inImmunocompetent Mice

In order to evaluate the use of SV vectors carrying TAAs for cancertherapy, a LacZ-expressing mouse colon cancer cell line (CT26.CL25) as amodel tumor-TAA system. Initially, SV/TAA (SV/LacZ) efficacy in micebearing subcutaneous (s.c.) tumors was tested. As seen in FIG. 1a ,SV/LacZ significantly inhibited the growth of LacZ-expressing CT26.CL25tumors, while the control vector SV/Fluc had no observable therapeuticeffect (FIG. 1a , left panel). On the other hand, both SV/LacZ andSV/Fluc had little effect on the growth of LacZ-negative CT26.WT tumors(FIG. 1a , right panel). These results demonstrate that SV/LacZ has apowerful antigen-dependent therapeutic effect in mice bearing s.c. CT26tumors.

In order to investigate SV/LacZ efficacy in a physiologically relevantmodel of colon cancer, CT26.CL25 cells were injected intraperitoneallyto mimic peritoneal carcinomatosis [26]. Therapeutic efficacy in thismodel was assessed by monitoring mouse survival. As in the s.c. model,SV/LacZ was found to have a potent therapeutic effect against thesetumors, while the control vector (SV/Fluc) had only a minor therapeuticeffect (FIG. 1b ). Next, the efficacy of SV/LacZ against tumors growingin the lung was examined. To supplement the survival data in this model,Fluc-expressing CT26 cell lines (CT26.CL25.Fluc and CT26.WT.Fluc) wereconstructed, which can be used to monitor tumor growth noninvasivelyusing the IVIS imaging system [16]. I.v. injection of Fluc-expressingCT26.CL25 cells produced lung tumors, and it was found that SV/LacZinduced complete tumor remission and long-term survival in this model,while the control vector, SV/GFP, only slightly delayed tumor growth anddid not result in long-term survival (FIG. 1c ). As in the s.c. tumormodel, the enhanced therapeutic effect obtained from SV/LacZ in the lungtumor model was dependent on the expression of the TAA (LacZ) from boththe vector and the tumor cells, as LacZ-negative CT26.WT tumor growthwas only slightly inhibited by SV/LacZ (FIG. 9). Taken together, theseresults demonstrate that SV vectors carrying a TAA induce a potenttherapeutic effect in mice bearing TAA-expressing CT26 tumors,regardless of the site of tumor growth.

Example 2: Mediastinal Lymph Nodes Transiently Express AntigensDelivered by SV Vectors, and are a Site of Early T Cell ActivationDuring SV Therapy

It has been previously shown that SV vectors have oncolytic potential,and can target certain tumors in vivo [16]. In order to evaluate therole of tumor cell targeting in the therapeutic effect observed in theCT26 tumor model, tumor-bearing mice were treated with SV/Fluc vectors,which can be used to monitor vector localization in mice [16]. It wasfound that even after multiple injections, SV vectors did not targets.c. growing CT26.CL25 tumors (FIG. 2a , left panel). Similarly, thevectors did not target lung tumors; instead, SV/Fluc was seen in theperitoneal fat of tumor-bearing mice 24 hours after the first injection,and in the liver 5 days later (FIG. 10). This general pattern was notdependent on the presence of tumor cells, and occurred in tumor-freemice as well (FIG. 10). These results are consistent with other studiesdemonstrating that CT26 cells are not infected by SV in vitro [20], andsuggest that the powerful therapeutic effect obtained from SV/LacZ isnot dependent on tumor cell targeting.

Interestingly, by focusing on very early time points after SV/Flucinjection, it was noticed that a transient Fluc signal can be seen inthe upper body as early as 3 hours after i.p. SV/Fluc injection (FIG. 2aand FIG. 10). By extracting the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN) andimaging them separately, it was determined that the upper body signaloriginated from these lymph nodes (FIG. 2a , right panel). Notably,transient Fluc expression in the MLN occurred in both tumor-bearing andtumor-free mice (FIG. 10).

The MLN has previously been shown to drain the peritoneum [27, 28], andrepresents an environment in which antigens delivered by SV vectors(such as Fluc, LacZ, or other TAAs) can potentially be processed andpresented to T cells by antigen presenting cells (APC) in the context ofSV viral danger signals such as double stranded (ds) RNA [22]. The MLNtherefore provides a possible location for the induction of an immuneresponse to SV/TAA. Consistent with this hypothesis, the number of Tcells in the MLN significantly increased 24 hours after SV/LacZtreatment (FIG. 2b ). As a control lymph node, we used the inguinallymph nodes (ILN), which do not directly drain the peritoneal cavity[29], and were not targeted by i.p. injection of SV/Fluc (FIG. 2a andadditional data not shown). Unlike the MLN, there was no increase in Tcells in the ILN 24 h after SV/LacZ injection (FIG. 2b ). In addition tothe apparent influx of T cells into the MLN, the expression of CD69,which is an early activation marker of T cells, was highly induced onCD8⁺ T cells in the MLN 24 hours after SV/LacZ treatment (FIG. 2c ). Incontrast, CD8⁺ T cells from the control ILN were significantly lessactivated, though a slight increase in CD69 expression was observed inthese cells (FIG. 2c ). Taken together, FIG. 2 demonstrates that tumorcell targeting is not required for effective SV/LacZ therapy, andsuggests that immune cell activation during SV/LacZ therapy may occurfar away from the tumor site, e.g. in lymph nodes that drain the SVinjection site.

Example 3: SV/LacZ Treatment Induces a Robust Activation of CD8⁺ T Cells

Because the activation of CD8⁺ T cells in lymph nodes draining the SVinjection site was observed, it was anticipated that activated CD8⁺ Tcells might subsequently migrate into the injection site in theperitoneum. Using flow cytometry, it was confirmed that a large numberof CD8⁺ T cells influx into the peritoneum by 7 days after the firstSV/LacZ injection (FIG. 3a ). These peritoneal CD8⁺ T cells wereactivated, as evidenced by their upregulation of NKG2D [30] anddownregulation of lymph node homing receptor L-selectin [31] (FIG. 3b ).In addition to the robust influx of activated CD8⁺ T cells into theperitoneum, a small number of NKG2D high, L-selectin low CD8⁺ T cellscould also be seen in the lungs of mice bearing lung CT26.CL25 tumorsthat were treated with SV/LacZ (FIG. 3b ).

Example 4: SV/LacZ Treatment Induces LacZ-Specific Effector and MemoryCD8⁺ T Cells

The fact that SV therapeutic efficacy depends on the expression of LacZfrom both the vector and the tumor cells (FIG. 1 FIG. 9), in conjunctionwith the robust activation of CD8⁺ T cells observed during SV/LacZtherapy (FIGS. 2 and 3) suggest that CD8⁺ T cells may be involved in theanti-cancer effect of SV/LacZ in this model. Nevertheless, CD8⁺ T cellactivation also occurred during SV/GFP and SV/Fluc therapy (FIG. 11),even though these vectors had significantly lower therapeutic efficacy(FIG. 1). It was hypothesized that what distinguishes SV/LacZ from theother vectors is its ability to directly stimulate LacZ-specific CD8⁺ Tcells that can subsequently target LacZ-expressing tumors. Todemonstrate this concept, SV/LacZ was injected into a LacZ-naïvetumor-free mouse, a robust LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cell response in theperitoneum 4 days later was observed (FIG. 12a ). An increase inLacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cells was also observed in the spleens of s.c.tumor-bearing mice (FIGS. 4a and b ), in the peritoneum of i.p. and lungtumor-bearing mice (FIG. 4c ), and in the lungs of lung tumor-bearingmice (FIG. 4d , left panel) treated with SV/LacZ. Fewer LacZ-specificCD8⁺ T cells were seen in mice treated with control vectors (FIG. 12b ).As expected, LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cells from SV/LacZ-treated mice werecharacterized by an activated (NKG2D high, L-selectin low) phenotype(FIG. 4d , right panel, and FIG. 12a , right panel). Taken together,these results demonstrate that SV/LacZ treatment leads to the potentactivation of LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cells, providing a possible mechanismfor the LacZ-dependent efficacy seen in FIG. 1.

In order to determine if a subset of the LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cellsgenerated during SV/LacZ therapy eventually develop into memory T cells,splenocytes from SV/LacZ-treated long-term surviving mice that bore i.p.CT26.CL25 tumors were analyzed. Using LacZ tetramers in combination withthe memory marker CD127, a population (roughly 1% of the CD8⁺ T cellsplenocyte population) of LacZ-specific, CD127⁺ memory CD8⁺ T cells inthese mice was identified, more than 3 months after the last SV/LacZinjection. Control splenocytes from naïve mice had only backgroundlevels of this population (under 0.1%) (FIG. 12c ).

Example 5: SV/LacZ Treatment Induces Lymphocyte Cytotoxicity AgainstCT26.CL25 Tumor Cells

As shown in FIG. 4d , LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cells in the lungs of lungtumor-bearing mice treated with SV/LacZ appeared to be activated. Inorder to investigate the function of these cells, an ex vivocytotoxicity assay was performed using lung lymphocytes obtained fromlung tumor (CT26.CL25)-bearing mice receiving SV/LacZ (or SV/GFP)therapy. As shown in FIG. 5a , the viability of CT26.CL25 tumor cellswas significantly lower when they were co-cultured with lung lymphocytesfrom SV/LacZ-treated mice compared to when they were co-cultured withlymphocytes from mock or SV/GFP-treated mice. Notably, lung lymphocytesfrom SV/LacZ-treated mice did not affect the viability of LacZ-negativeCT26.WT tumor cells, demonstrating the antigen-specific nature of theimmune response in the lung. Consistent with this result, only lunglymphocytes from SV/LacZ-treated mice that were co-cultured withLacZ-expressing CT26.CL25 tumor cells showed an increase in IFN-γproduction (FIG. 5b ).

Example 6: CD8⁺ T Cells are Required for the Antigen-Specific EnhancedTherapeutic Effect of SV/LacZ

The results of the cytotoxicity and IFN-γ secretion assays (FIG. 5) areconsistent with the in vivo observation that SV/LacZ has a significantlystronger therapeutic effect against CT26.CL25 tumors than controlvectors (FIG. 1), and with the observation that SV/LacZ induces apowerful LacZ-specific CD8⁺ T cell response in tumor-bearing mice (FIG.4). Taken together, these results strongly suggest the involvement ofCD8⁺ T cells in the antigen-specific benefits of SV/TAA therapy. Inorder to directly determine the role of CD8⁺ T cells in the therapeuticeffects observed, the CD8⁺ T cell population in mice bearing s.c. (FIG.6a ), peritoneal (FIG. 6b ), and lung (FIG. 6c ) tumors was depleted,and confirmed that in the absence of CD8⁺ T cells, the therapeuticefficacy of SV/LacZ was greatly reduced in all 3 models.

Example 7: SV/LacZ Therapy Induces Epitope Spreading

Surprisingly, it was found that, unlike lung lymphocytes, splenocytesfrom SV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice acquired cytotoxicity against notonly CT26.CL25 cells, but also LacZ-negative CT26.WT cells (FIG. 7a ).Consistently, an increase in IFN-γ production was observed when thesesplenocytes were co-cultured with CT26.WT cells, although the extent ofthe production was lower than when they were co-cultured with CT26.CL25cells (FIG. 7b ). Based on these results, it was hypothesized thatSV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice might have acquired resistance toLacZ-negative CT26.WT tumors. To determine if this was the case, CT26.WTcells were injected i.v. (FIG. 7c ) or i.p. (data not shown) intoSV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice, and found that the tumors did notgrow. In contrast, tumor growth was readily observed in control (naïve)mice. These results suggest that an immune response to endogenous CT26tumor antigens might have developed as a consequence of SV/LacZ therapy,a concept known alternatively as epitope spreading, antigen spreading,determinant spreading, or antigen cascade [32]. To confirm that epitopespreading occurred during SV/LacZ therapy, gp70 was focused on, which isan endogenous CT26 TAA. As shown in FIG. 7d , an increase in IFN-γsecretion from splenocytes taken from SV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured micewas observed after culturing these cells with either gp70 or LacZpeptides, whereas, neither peptide induced IFN-γ secretion from naïvesplenocytes. These results indicate that splenocytes fromSV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice could respond to endogenous CT26 TAAssuch as gp70 in addition to LacZ. Consistent with this observation, flowcytometry analysis using gp70 tetramers demonstrated that the number ofgp70-specific CD8⁺ T cells was increased in the spleens ofSV/LacZ-treated tumor-cured mice compared with naïve mice (FIG. 7e ).Taken together, these results indicate that SV/LacZ therapy againstCT26.CL25 tumors induced epitope spreading, which led to the developmentof immunity against other antigen(s) expressed on the CT26 tumors.

Disclosed herein, a mouse cancer-TAA system was used to investigate theuse of SV vectors carrying TAAs for cancer therapy, and the followingkey observations were made: (i) SV represents a potentially powerfultherapeutic platform for the immunogenic delivery of TAAs, (ii) thetherapeutic benefit obtained from SV/TAA does not necessarily requirethe direct targeting of tumor cells, (iii) SV/TAA therapy involvestransient early delivery of the TAA to lymph nodes draining theinjection site, in particular the MLN in the case of i.p. SV injection,(iv) SV/TAA therapy induces a potent TAA-specific CD8⁺ T cell response,that is subsequently redirected against tumor cells expressing thecognate TAA, (v) SV/TAA therapy leads to epitope spreading, providing apossible solution to the problem of tumor escape by TAA loss ormodification, and (vi) SV/TAA therapy ultimately leads to long-termsurvival of tumor-bearing mice, and to the generation of long-lastingmemory CD8⁺ T cells against multiple TAAs.

Based on these findings, a four-step model for the activation of CD8+ Tcell mediated anti-tumor immunity during SV/TAA therapy (induction,cytotoxicity, epitope spreading, and memory), is provided.

Over the last few decades, a variety of methods have been developed forthe immunogenic delivery of TAAs, including the employment of vectorsthat target Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) [33], or are directlyinjected into lymph nodes [34]. Disclosed herein, it was demonstratedthat a single i.p. injection of SV/TAA leads to the rapid immunogenicdelivery of TAAs to the MLN. TAA expression in the MLN is transient, andlikely would have remained unnoticed without the use of the sensitiveIVIS imaging system. I.p. injections are frequently used in animalstudies, and are becoming increasingly common in the clinic [35].Observations of transient TAA expression and subsequent T cellactivation at this site (FIG. 2) may therefore have broad implicationsfor the development of cancer immunotherapies. In this context, Hsu etal. have recently demonstrated that i.p.-injected cytomegalovirusresulted in the productive infection of CD169⁺ macrophages in the MLN[28]. Consistent with this, depletion of macrophages substantiallyreduced the expression of SV-derived heterologous protein in the MLN(unpublished results). Notably, however, the induction of anti-TAA CD8⁺T cell immunity was not significantly inhibited in macrophage-depletedmice that were treated with SV/LacZ (unpublished results). Thisdiscrepancy may be resolved by the observation that while bothmacrophages and dendritic cells (DC) express viral antigens in draininglymph nodes, only DC efficiently present these antigens to naïve CD8⁺ Tcells [36]. Another possible explanation is the fact that additionallymph nodes besides the MLN drain the peritoneal cavity. Indeed,transient heterologous protein expression was also observed in theabdominal cavity of SV-treated mice (FIG. 10, top panel). Furtherstudies are needed, and are underway, to clarify the role of TAAdelivery to the MLN during SV/TAA therapy.

Besides the activation of T cells in the MLN, there appears to be asystemic redistribution of CD8⁺ T cells early after SV/TAA injection.Various tissues, including the peritoneum (FIG. 11a ) and the lung (FIG.13), show a reduction in CD8⁺ T cells in the first 1-2 days after SV/TAAinjection. The apparent efflux of T cells from these tissues coincideswith their influx into the MLN (FIG. 2B). It is interesting to note thatduring this early phase, lung tumors in SV/TAA-treated mice alreadyappear to shrink (FIG. 1c ). Moreover, this early therapeutic effect wasalso observed in mice treated with control vectors that do not expressthe TAA (FIG. 1c ), in SV-treated mice bearing tumors that do notexpress the TAA (FIG. 9), and in SV/TAA-treated mice that were depletedof CD8⁺ T cells (FIG. 6c ). One possible explanation for this is theactivation of natural killer (NK) cells by SV. It has been previouslyshown that SV therapy induces a robust NK cell response in tumor-bearingmice [19]. In the CT26 lung model, a rapid influx of NKG2D-expressing NKcells into the lung was observed as early as 2 days after SV injection,several days before the maximum influx of TAA-specific CD8⁺ T cells(FIG. 13).

One of the limitations of cancer vaccine strategies is that the inherentheterogeneity and genomic instability of tumor cell populations, coupledwith the selective pressure induced by the treatment, can lead to tumorevasion by loss or modification of the TAA used in the vaccine [38, 39].In this context, an interesting and therapeutically significantobservation is the induction of epitope spreading, i.e. the expansion ofthe anti-tumor T cell response to incorporate novel TAAs that areendogenous to the tumor, but not delivered by the vector [32] duringSV/TAA therapy (FIG. 7). Clinical trials are increasingly incorporatingthe analysis of epitope spreading [40], and in some cases a positivecorrelation between the induction of epitope spreading and therapeuticefficacy has been shown [25]. These developments may signify a paradigmshift in the design of cancer vaccines, whereby an emphasis would beplaced on the induction of a strong diversified T cell response thatcould potentially be effective even against tumors with heterogeneousantigen expression.

In summary, the present application provides methods for the use ofSV/TAA for cancer therapy, and provides valuable insight into themechanisms underlying SV/TAA efficacy. Pursuant to the presentinvention, using SV vectors that carry a TAA not only greatly enhancesSV efficacy, but also abrogates the need for tumor cell targeting—ahitherto prerequisite for effective oncolytic SV therapy—thereby pavingthe way for a much broader application of SV anti-cancer therapy. Thecurrent findings, in addition to previous investigations into theoncolytic potential of SV [15, 16], compliment and expand upon earlierstudies on the use of SV nucleic acid [41] and replicon particle [42]vaccines, and illustrate the versatility of SV anti-cancer therapy.

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The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specificembodiments described herein. Indeed, various modifications of theinvention in addition to those described herein will be apparent tothose skilled in the art from the foregoing description and theaccompanying figures. Such modifications are intended to fall within thescope of the appended claims.

It is further to be understood that all values are approximate, and areprovided for description.

Patents, patent applications, publications, product descriptions, andprotocols are cited throughout this application, the disclosures ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for allpurposes

1.-22. (canceled)
 23. A method of treating a mammal having a tumor, themethod comprising administering by intravenous or intraperitonealinjection to a site of the mammal harboring said tumor an effectiveamount of a replication defective Sindbis viral vector comprising a geneencoding New York-ESO-1 (NY-ESO-1), wherein the Sindbis viral vectordoes not infect the tumor directly, and wherein the tumor is treated byNY-ESO-1 specific T cell response in the lymph nodes that drain the siteof administration of the Sindbis viral vector.
 24. The method of claim23, wherein the NY-ESO-1 specific T cell response in the lymph nodes isfollowed by generation and influx of effector and memory NY-ESO-1specific CD8+ T cells in the tumor, and wherein effector and memoryNY-ESO-1 specific CD8+ T cells display cytotoxicity against the NY-ESO-1positive and negative tumor cells.
 25. The method of claim 23, whereinthe said Sindbis viral vector introduces the NY-ESO-1 into the lymphnodes prior to activation of a NY-ESO-1 specific immune response byantigen presenting cells (APCs) in the mammal.
 26. The method of claim23, wherein the immune response induced in the lymph nodes of thesubject further induces an adaptive anti-tumor immune responsecomprising activation of NY-ESO-1-specific CD4+ T cells, NK cells,macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells and neutrophils in the mammal.27. The method of claim 23, wherein the subject is human.
 28. The methodof claim 23, wherein the tumor is selected from the group consisting ofsubcutaneous, intraperitoneal, and lung cancer tumor.
 29. The method ofclaim 23, wherein the tumor is a solid tumor.
 30. The method of claim23, wherein the solid tumor is ovarian cancer tumor.
 31. The method ofclaim 23, wherein the Sindbis viral vector is administered incombination with chemotherapy.